Past Projects

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Overview of contents

Subtopic overview

Topic name

Nuclear processes and Earth history: Apollo missions, humankind's first step to living in space

Subtopic name

Evidence of Plate Tectonics 

Link to topic plan

https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1PYoE5kpaaa3B6gjUL4EZOzb2LVmRmyMp/edit?rtpof=true 

Link to subtopic plan

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1Fqj6FuN3B1x8XgxeWpBwDf6uEhWs0rpOen2NbXWG2tk/edit 

 

Subtopic contents 

Section 1:  4.2.1 Zooming in

Subsection reference

Zooming in

4.2.1.1

Cyclic patterns of Earth’s materials and energy

4.2.1.2

The rock cycle

4.2.1.3

What is plate tectonics?

4.2.1.4

Reflection and summary

Section 2:  4.2.2 Nuclear processes

Subsection reference

Nuclear processes

4.2.2.1

What is a nuclear process?

4.2.2.2

What is a half-life?

4.2.2.3

How does radiometric dating work?

4.2.2.4

Reflection and summary

Section 3: 4.2.3 The history of planet Earth

Subsection reference

The history of planet Earth

4.2.3.1

Earth’s origin 

4.2.3.2

Pangea and plate tectonics

4.2.3.3

What are the relationships among radioactive decay, heat, and plate tectonics?

4.2.3.4

Reflection and summary

Section 4: 4.2.4 Plate tectonics and the ages of crustal rock

Subsection reference

Plate tectonics and the ages of crustal rock

4.2.4.1

The importance of the scientific model

4.2.4.2

Connections between plate tectonics and the ages of crustal rock

4.2.4.3

Where are the oldest rocks found?

4.2.4.4

Reflection and summary

Section 5: 4.2.5 Plate tectonics, a universal phenomenon?

Subsection reference

Plate tectonics, a universal phenomenon?

4.2.5.1

Evidence of plate tectonics elsewhere?

4.2.5.2

Evaluation of research

4.2.5.3

What about Europa?

4.2.5.4

Reflection and summary

Additional content

10 Strength questions (per subtopic) [Leave for now, separate template will be sent]

2-3 Investigations (per subtopic) [Leave for now, separate template will be sent]

1 Teacher guide (per subtopic) [Leave for now, separate template will be sent]

1 Example lesson plan (per subtopic) [Leave for now, separate template will be sent]

1 Presentation (per subtopic) [Leave for now, separate template will be sent]

Glossary

4.2.1. Zooming in

 

Standard(s) covered (PEs):

HS-ESS1-5 

DCI(s) covered:

PS1.C

ESS1.C

ESS2.B

CCC(s) covered:

Patterns 

SEP(s) covered:

Engaging in argument from evidence 

5E covered:

Engage

4.2.1.1 Cyclic patterns of Earth’s materials and energy

In a previous lesson, you learned that the Apollo space missions provided evidence that some forces experienced on Earth are forces that exist elsewhere in the universe. In this lesson, you will investigate whether distant celestial bodies in the solar system have experienced phenomena similar to Earth. Specifically, you will investigate the question: Do Earth's moon and other planets in the solar system show evidence of tectonics? 

For example, when you see the picture below from NASA, could the formations on Earth’s moon have been the result of the same forces that caused Earth’s land formations?

Artwork briefing template

Filename (this field will be filled by the Project Manager at a later stage)

ngss.phy.4.2.aw.01

Type of artwork (e.g. photo, illustration, interactive applet, video)

photo

Brief description of what the artwork should represent/show

 

Description of what the artwork should include: Please share as many details as possible.

 

Please include the image or interactive caption too (all images need a caption).

 

Reference images: Please add source links/drawing/examples here to help us with the artwork creation.

 

It is preferable to avoid suggesting images and to let our media team do a selection of images. However, if you would like to suggest a specific image, please add the source link to this box, and write alternative instructions if we can’t use the suggested image due to copyright .

https://moon.nasa.gov/resources/48/the-moons-surface/

<ngss.phy.4.2.aw.01>

Figure 1: The surface of Earth’s moon.

Before you get started, review some of the cyclic patterns of Earth’s materials and energy that you learned about in middle school. 

Activity box

Break into groups of two or three to answer the following questions. You may need to do some research on the topic. Each group can take one question.

• Review and outline the processes in the water cycle on Earth.

• Review and outline the processes in the carbon cycle on Earth.

• Review and outline the processes in the nitrogen cycle on Earth.

• Review and outline the processes in the oxygen cycle on Earth.

• Review and outline the processes in the rock cycle on Earth.

 

The following is a helpful website to start your research:

https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/earth-system/biogeochemical-cycles

 

There are also interactives on this website that you can experiment with:

https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/permanent/planet-earth/why-is-the-earth-habitable/earth-cycles

 

Share the information you find with the rest of the class either graphically, textually, or orally.

 

Your context

You can observe cyclic patterns of Earth’s materials and energy all around you. For example, you are probably familiar with the cycles of photosynthesis and cellular respiration. Identify some other cycles of materials and energy that you recognize occurring on Earth.

 

Vocabulary

Words we need     <ngss.phy.4.2.aw.02>

 

1.  The **water cycle** explains the circulation of water.  water vapor, and ice on Earth.

2. The “carbon cycle” explains how carbon compounds cycle through the environment and organisms.

3. The **nitrogen cycle** explains how nitrogen cycles through the environment and organisms.

4. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are components of the **oxygen** cycle.

5. The **rock cycle** traces different types of rock as they cycle through geologic time.

 

4.2.1.2  The rock cycle

In previous years of your education, you learned about many cyclic patterns on Earth. You learned about lunar phases, eclipses of the sun and moon, and the cyclic patterns of the seasons. You also learned about the water cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, and the oxygen cycle. Remember, for example, the cyclic nature of photosynthesis and cellular respiration. You know that plants use carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose and oxygen. Organisms need that oxygen then use the oxygen to break down their food into energy. 

Now, you will learn about another cyclic pattern that has been occurring on Earth since its formation. This is a pattern that occurs on a microscopic level but affects our planet on a macroscopic level. You will be learning about plate tectonics, heat, radioactive decay, and the relationship among these three. You will learn how movements of continental and oceanic crust explain the ages of Earth’s rocks.

 

In the last activity, you reviewed various cyclic processes on Earth. What did you learn about the cyclic patterns occurring on Earth? Scientists often represent these cyclic patterns graphically. Look at the diagram of the rock cycle in Figure 2. Notice that it shows the various types of rocks that develop from the magma of a volcanic explosion.  

<ngss.phy.4.2.aw.02>

Figure 2: The rock cycle.

Artwork briefing template

Filename (this field will be filled by the Project Manager at a later stage)

ngss.phy.4.2.aw.02

Type of artwork (e.g. photo, illustration, interactive applet, video)

Illustration

Brief description of what the artwork should represent/show

This image may be subject to copyright. The source is below. Please show the same information if you need to redraw–the same rocks, cycle, and labels please?

 

Caption: The Rock Cycle

Description of what the artwork should include: Please share as many details as possible.

 

If this is copyrighted, please include all the written information as here. You can change the pictures of the rocks and volcano.

 

Reference images: Please add source links/drawing/examples here to help us with the artwork creation.

 

It is preferable to avoid suggesting images and to let our media team do a selection of images. However, if you would like to suggest a specific image, please add the source link to this box, and write alternative instructions if we can’t use the suggested image due to copyright.

https://www.learner.org/series/interactive-rock-cycle/ 

 

Multiple choice question

Question

Which natural phenomenon plays a major role in the rock cycle?

Answer 1 (correct)

volcanic eruption

Answer 2 (incorrect)

cyclone

Answer 3 (incorrect)

earthquake 

Answer 4 (incorrect)

tornado

Explanation

Magma released from a volcano as lava contributes new rocks to Earth’s crust.

 

Relevant section on Kognity

 

4.2.1

Marking type (strict or non-exact)

Strict

NGSS alignment

HS-ESS1-5, PS1.C, ESS1.C, ESS2.B

Difficulty level (easy, medium or hard)

Easy

 

Activity box

 

Watch the following video. 

<ngss.phy.4.2.v.01>

Video 1: Energy transformations.

 

Video/audio brief

ngss.phy.4.2.v.01

 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O4Rxb-3jIqQ

 

Consider energy transformations:

• What is an example of chemical energy transformed into kinetic energy?

• What is an example of nuclear energy transformed into heat? 

 

Referring to the video:

• Explain the law of the conservation of energy.

• Name 6 forms of energy.

• Explain and describe energy transformation.

 

Work on these questions individually and then share with the whole class.

 

Multiple choice question

Question

Which phenomenon would not occur if Earth did not have a very hot inner core?

Answer 1 (correct)

volcanic eruption

Answer 2 (incorrect)

ocean tides

Answer 3 (incorrect)

evaporation

Answer 4 (incorrect)

photosynthesis

Explanation

The heat from Earth’s inner core can cause hot magma to erupt as lava through volcanoes on the crust.

Relevant section on Kognity

 

4.2.1

Marking type (strict or non-exact)

Strict

NGSS alignment

HS-ESS1-5, PS1.C, ESS1.C, ESS2.B

Difficulty level (easy, medium or hard)

Easy

4.2.1.3 What is plate tectonics?

The word “tectonics” is related to the movement of Earth’s crust. The term comes from a Greek word meaning “builder.” Plate tectonics is the theory scientists believe accounts for the “building” of Earth’s surface.

In this section, you will learn more about the specifics of plate tectonics. Start by watching the following video. Make sure you take notes and record any questions as you watch. 

<ngss.phy.4.2.v.02>

Video 2: Alien Deep: Tectonic Plates.

 

Video/audio brief

ngss.phy.4.2.v.02

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/plate-tectonics/

(scroll down to the video: “Alien Deep: Tectonic Plates”)

 

Caption: Alien deep: tectonic plates.

 

Activity box

Break into groups of 2 or 3. Your teacher may divide these questions so that each group answers a few:

• What is the theory of plate tectonics?

• Define the following terms:

  • Sonar

  • Lithosphere

  • Asthenosphere

  • Plate boundary

  • Divergent plate boundary

• What occurs at divergent plate boundaries?

• What is the mid-ocean ridge?

• Is there empirical evidence anywhere on Earth of the mid-ocean ridge?

• What is a convergent plate boundary?

• What is a subduction zone?

• How was the Himalayan Mountain range formed?

• Is there empirical evidence of the mid-ocean ridge on the island of Cyprus?

• How are plate tectonics responsible for volcanoes and earthquakes?

• Are Earth’s plates still moving?

 

In each of your groups create a verbal, 2D, or 3D presentation of the answers to these questions. Share with the whole class. 

 

In the activity above, you learned about convergent, divergent, and transform plate boundaries. The image below is an excellent graphic that illustrates the nature of convergent, divergent, and transform plate boundaries.

<ngss.phy.4.2.aw.03>

Figure 3: Tectonic plate boundaries.

Artwork briefing template

Filename (this field will be filled by the Project Manager at a later stage)

ngss.phy.4.2.aw.03

Type of artwork (e.g. photo, illustration, interactive applet, video)

illustration

Brief description of what the artwork should represent/show

This image may be subject to copyright. The source is below.

 

Please show the same information if you need to redraw. Please keep labels all the same. Change colors as necessary.  

 

Caption: Convergent, Divergent, and Transform Plate Boundaries.

Description of what the artwork should include: Please share as many details as possible.

 

 

Reference images: Please add source links/drawing/examples here to help us with the artwork creation.

 

It is preferable to avoid suggesting images and to let our media team do a selection of images. However, if you would like to suggest a specific image, please add the source link to this box, and write alternative instructions if we can’t use the suggested image due to copyright .

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-representation-of-the-three-types-of-plate-boundaries-convergent-top_fig1_305782020 

 

Activity box

Break into groups of 2 or 3 and use the Internet to research examples on Earth of
landforms created by convergent, divergent, and transform plate boundaries.  

This website might help:

https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/tectonic-features.html#:~:text=Deep%20ocean%20trenches%2C%20volcanoes%2C%20island,
one%20moves%20beneath%20the%20other.

 

For example, what type of plate boundary formed the Himalayan Mountains?

 

Find pictures of all the actual landforms you find.

 

 

Vocabulary

Words we need

 

1. Earth’s subterranean movements are explained by **plate tectonics**.

2. A **divergent plate boundary** is where two plates separate.

3. When **magma** emerges from under Earth’s surface, it is an extremely hot liquid rock and is called lava..

4. When **convergent plate boundaries** come together, they can form a mountain range.

5. When one plate boundary goes underneath another one, it is called **subduction.** 

6. A **mid-ocean ridge** runs along the north/south axis of the Atlantic Ocean. 

7. Energy is neither created nor destroyed according to the **law of conservation of energy.**

 

 

Crosscutting Concept

Patterns

 

Empirical evidence relies on sense experience or experimental procedure. You can see in Video 1 above that scientists have located evidence of the mid-ocean ridge emerging from the water in Iceland. Is more evidence required to identify a pattern?

 

Science and Engineering Practice

 

Engaging in argument from evidence

As you learn more about the theory of plate tectonics, you can assess whether the evidence that you discover in your own research supports the theory. 

 

Fill in the blanks question

Question and answer(s) enclosed in [square] brackets

Complete the following sentence.

 

The theory of plate tectonics states that Earth’s solid outer crust, the [lithosphere}, is divided into plates that move on top of the [asthenosphere].

Gap 1 answer variations (optional)

N/A 

Gap 2 answer variations (optional)

N/A

Answer explanation

The lithosphere is the outer crust of Earth, and the asthenosphere is just below the lithosphere.

Gap 1 explanation (optional)

N/A

Gap 2 explanation (optional)

N/A

Relevant section on Kognity

The Kognity topic_subtopic_section to which your question aligns: 

 

4.2.1 

Marking type (strict or non-exact)

Strict

NGSS alignment

HS-ESS1-5, PS1.C, ESS1.C, ESS2.B, PAT-H5, ARG-H2

Difficulty level (easy, medium or hard)

Easy

4.2.1.4 Reflection and summary

As you learn more about plate tectonics, reflect on what you have just learned: What type of energy does plate tectonics require to affect Earth’s crust/lithosphere?

<<Show/hide button>>

<<heat>>

As you think about the heat in Earth’s core, ask yourself these questions:

• What accounts for the heat in Earth’s core?

• Is empirical evidence needed to identify patterns that we assume are occurring on Earth’s crust/lithosphere?

• How does the theory of plate tectonics explain the ages of crustal rocks?

• Do Earth's moon and other planets in our solar system show evidence of tectonics? 

 

4.2.2 Nuclear processes

 

Standard(s) covered (PEs):

HS-ESS1-5  

DCI(s) covd:

PS1.C

ESS1.C

ESS2.B

CCC(s) covered:

Patterns 

SEP(s) covered:

Engaging in argument from evidence 

5E covered:

Explore

4.2.2.1 What is a nuclear process?

Some of your past learning included information on the composition of an atom’s nucleus and the energy released during the nuclear processes of fusion, fission, and radioactive decay.

The questions below will refresh your memory on a couple of these concepts, and the other terms will come up as we proceed with the lesson.

Short text question

Question

What is the process called when four hydrogen nuclei combine to form helium?

Answer

fusion

Answer variations (optional)

N/A

Answer explanation

Fusion is the process of combining two or more different entities into a new whole.

Relevant section on Kognity

The Kognity topic_subtopic_section to which your question aligns: 

 

4.2.2 

Marking type (strict or non-exact)

Strict

NGSS alignment

HS-ESS1-5, PS1.C, ESS1.C, ESS2.B, PAT-H5, ARG-H2

Difficulty level (easy, medium or hard)

Easy

 

Fill in the blanks question

Question and answer(s) enclosed in [square] brackets

Complete the following sentence.

 

[Fission] is a process that divides a substance into two or more parts.

Gap 1 answer variations (optional)

N/A 

Gap 2 answer variations (optional)

N/A

Answer explanation

When fission occurs in the nucleus of an atom, the nucleus divides into two or more smaller nuclei.

Gap 1 explanation (optional)

N/A

Gap 2 explanation (optional)

N/A

Relevant section on Kognity

The Kognity topic_subtopic_section to which your question aligns: 

 

4.2.2

Marking type (strict or non-exact)

Strict

NGSS alignment

PE/DCI/CCC/SEP covered

Difficulty level (easy, medium or hard)

Easy

 

The video and experiment below shows you something you might never have imagined seeing. You will see radioactive decay actually happening! This is your empirical evidence of radioactive decay. You are observing it with your own senses. You might even be able to perform this experiment yourself.

 

Video/audio brief

 

https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Valley_City_State_University/Chem_122/Chapter_
9%3A_Nuclear_Chemistry/9.2%3A_Radioactive_Decay

(scroll down to the video: “How to Build a Cloud Chamber”)

 

Caption:  How to build a cloud chamber

 

Activity box

Watch the following video:

Ngss.phy.4.2.video.01

https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Valley_City_State_University/Chem_122/Chapter_
9%3A_Nuclear_Chemistry/9.2%3A_Radioactive_Decay

(scroll down to the video: “How to Build a Cloud Chamber”)

 

The purpose of this cool experiment is to view empirical evidence of radioactive decay.

 

Record what is actually occurring  in this experiment and how it represents radioactive decay.

 

Remember that radioactive decay is the process whereby an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy.

 

After watching the video on the “cloud chamber,” you can understand that what you witnessed were alpha particles being emitted from the tiny amount of radioactive material at the tip of the needle. Recall that there were three radioactive elements in this experiment: lead-210 transforming to bismuth-210 which transforms to polonium-210. It is the polonium-210 that emits the alpha particles. An important aspect of this experiment to note is the empirical evidence of radioactive decay that you were able to observe with your own senses. 

4.2.2.2 What is a half-life?

In this subsection, you will engage with an entertaining interactive that shows you the concept of half-life in action. You can interact with it to observe that different elements have different half-lives.

Activity box

Use this interactive site individually to see the process of half-life in action.

https://teachchemistry.org/classroom-resources/half-life-investigation-simulation

 

What this interactive is showing us is a radioactive element that is unstable and loses half its initial quantity every 500 years. 

• You start the interactive by selecting either Element X or Y. 

• Then, hit the “Decay Sample” in the green bar at the bottom.

• You will see the element emitting radiation.

• Each time you hit the “Decay Sample” green bar, the element will continue to emit radiation until it is stable.

• You can see how many half-lives and how long it took for the element to reach stability.

• Now, experiment with the other element.

• You will see that each element has a different half-life.

 

Will Elements X and Y be different elements when they reach stability?

 

Your context

In our everyday lives, we do not actually witness radioactive decay because it is a microscopic process. We witness many phenomena on a macroscopic scale that represent  patterns. Can you name a few? 

 

Crosscutting Concept

Patterns 

Empirical evidence is needed to identify patterns.

Does the experiment above give you enough empirical evidence to support the idea that what you are seeing is a decay pattern of radioactive decay? Do you find the explanation for the release of alpha particles adequate? Can you identify patterns in the natural world around you?

 

You learned that as radioactive elements decay, they become different elements. You also learned that scientists are able to determine how long it takes for one element to turn into another. This leads us to the next subsection in which we learn how scientists discover the age of different elements. Reflect on whether the ages of elements on other planets could be measured in this same way.

4.2.2.3 How does radiometric dating work?

You have learned that when radioactive elements decay, they emit different particles that can change the identity of the element. You know that the alpha particle has a positive charge, so when an element emits an alpha particle, the identity of the element changes. For example, when uranium-238 decays, it turns into lead-206. Another example is rubidium-87, which decays into strontium-87.

The key to measuring the ages of materials depends on how long it takes one element to change into another. The half-life of an element is the length of time for its amount to be reduced by half. You will understand how radiometric dating works as you explore these websites, videos, and interactives.

 

Video/audio brief

ngss.phy.4.2.video.02

https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Furman_University/CHM101%3A_Chemistry_and_
Global_Awareness_(Gordon)/05%3A_Basics_of_Nuclear_Science/5.07%3A_Calculating_
Half-Life

(Scroll down to video on “How Does Radiocarbon Dating Work?”)

 

Caption:  How Does Radiocarbon Dating Work?

 

Activity box

Watch the following video: 

https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Furman_University/CHM101%3A_Chemistry_and_
Global_Awareness_(Gordon)/05%3A_Basics_of_Nuclear_Science/5.07%3A_Calculating_Half-Life

(Scroll down to video on “How Does Radiocarbon Dating Work?”)

 

Scientists use the radiometric dating of uranium and other radioactive elements to determine the age of landforms on Earth and in the oceans of Earth. 

 

How do nuclear processes function in determining the age of an object?

 

Ask and answer questions about the information in the video.

 

The graph below is a good illustration of how many years it takes for radioactive cobalt-60 to  stop decaying and for its nucleus to reach stability.

Artwork briefing template

Filename (this field will be filled by the Project Manager at a later stage)

ngss.phy.4.2.aw.03

Type of artwork (e.g. photo, illustration, interactive applet, video)

illustration

Brief description of what the artwork should represent/show

This image may be subject to copyright. The source is below.

 

Please show the same information if you need to redraw. Please keep
labels all the same. Change colors as necessary. 

 

Caption: Diagram of the half-life of cobalt-60.

Description of what the artwork should include: Please share as many details as possible.

 

If this artwork is copyrighted, the graphics can change but all type info must remain the same.

 

Reference images: Please add source links/drawing/examples here to help us with the artwork creation.

 

It is preferable to avoid suggesting images and to let our media team do a selection of images. However, if you would like to suggest a specific image, please add the source link to this box, and write alternative instructions if we can’t use the suggested image due to copyright .

https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Furman_University/CHM101%3A_
Chemistry_and_Global_Awareness_(Gordon)/05%3A_Basics_of_Nuclear_
Science/5.07%3A_Calculating_Half-Life 

 

Science and Engineering Practice

 

Engaging in argument from evidence 

Evaluate evidence behind currently accepted explanations or solutions to determine the merits of arguments.

You might believe that it is difficult to find empirical evidence to support all the accepted explanations of the nuclear processes. Scientists build their knowledge on previously accepted theories. Is there an explanation that you can accept without direct personal empirical evidence? Why or why not?

 

Activity box

In groups of 2 or 3, explore how scientists use the radiometric dating of uranium and other radioactive elements to determine the age of landforms on Earth and in the oceans of Earth. How do nuclear processes function in determining the age of an object?

 

Research how radiometric dating works:

• Why is an element radioactive?

• What happens to carbon-14 when it undergoes radioactive decay?

• As carbon-14 decays, what atom does it turn into?

• What is the half-life of carbon-14, and how does that help determine the age of objects on Earth that contain carbon?

 

<show/hide hint>

A helpful website:

https://www.nist.gov/how-do-you-measure-it/how-do-you-measure-age-things

 

Create a presentation of your answers.

• You may illustrate your answers above with graphics and text.

• Share your presentation with the rest of your class.

 

Vocabulary

Words we need

 

radioactive decay

half-life

carbon-14

isotope

alpha particle

beta particle

gamma ray

 

1. An element goes through **radioactive decay** because its nucleus is unstable.

2. A **half-life** is the amount of time required for a substance to decrease by half.

3. A radioactive isotope of carbon containing 6 protons and 8 neutrons is called **carbon-14.** 

4. An **isotope** is an atom of an element that has a different number of neutrons from other atoms of the same element. 

5. An **alpha particle** has a positive charge.

6. A **beta particle** can have a negative charge.

7. 19. A **gamma ray** has no charge.

 

4.2.2.4 Reflection and summary

You have been learning background information to answer key questions in this lesson about plate tectonics. The primary question we are answering is how the theory of plate tectonics explains the ages of crustal rocks on Earth. A corollary to that question is whether we can see evidence of plate tectonics on Earth’s moon and other planets in our solar system.

Reflect on what you have learned so far: 

• Can you explain radioactive decay?

• Can you explain how radioactive dating works?

• How does this information help lay the groundwork to answer how the theory of plate tectonics explains the ages of crustal rocks on Earth.

 

4.2.3 The history of planet Earth

 

Standard(s) covered (PEs):

HS-ESS1-5  

DCI(s) covered:

PS1.C

ESS1.C

ESS2.B

CCC(s) covered:

Patterns

SEP(s) covered:

Engaging in argument from evidence

5E covered:

Explain

 

4.2.3.1 Earth’s origins

 

As you have learned about plate tectonics, you understand that a necessary part of this phenomenon depends on Earth’s very hot inner core. The temperature in Earth’s inner core is about 5,200 ° Celsius (9,392 ° Fahrenheit). You may not know whether the core is cooling down or maintaining the same level of heat. If it is continuing to be very hot, can you give an explanation for this?

 

Review the history of our planet Earth. As we do that, we may be able to begin to answer the driving question of our topic: Do Earth's moon and other planets in our solar system show evidence of tectonics?

 

Video/audio brief

ngss.phy.4.2.video.03

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0MSoJATlTrQ

 

Caption: How did Earth’s moon form?

 

Activity box

Watch the video and take notes.

 

In addition to the video, you can use the website:

https://www.livescience.com/46593-how-earth-formed-photo-timeline.html

to answer the following question.

 

Break into groups of 2 or 3 to find answers to the following questions after watching the video: 

• When and how did Earth form?

• How did Earth’s moon form?

• Are the materials of which Earth’s moon is composed the same as those of  Earth?

• Why is the upper mantle of Earth constantly moving?

• Did Earth always have 7 continents? If not, what other configuration of continents have scientists discovered? 

• Is it possible that all the planets in the solar system are composed of the same materials?

• Can you make assumptions about the existence of plate tectonics on the moon?

 

Share and compare your answers with other groups.

 

After watching the video and reflecting on the answers to your questions, can you form a hypothesis about the current or past existence of plate tectonics on Earth’s moon?

 

4.2.3.2  Pangea and plate tectonics

 

Pangea was a supercontinent that scientists believe existed about 250 million years ago. We will understand how plate tectonics changed Pangea. Look at the illustration below of how scientists believed the continents of Earth were all contiguous continents touching each other at that time. 

Artwork briefing template

Filename (this field will be filled by the Project Manager at a later stage)

ngss.phy.4.2.aw.05

Type of artwork (e.g. photo, illustration, interactive applet, video)

illustration

Brief description of what the artwork should represent/show

This image might be subject to copyright. If you need to change it for copyright, please adjust colors and font and keep the same information and format.

 

Caption:  The supercontinent of Pangea.

Description of what the artwork should include: Please share as many details as possible.

 

You can adjust the graphic but please keep the same information as here.

 

Reference images: Please add source links/drawing/examples here to help us with the artwork creation.

 

It is preferable to avoid suggesting images and to let our media team do a selection of images. However, if you would like to suggest a specific image, please add the source link to this box, and write alternative instructions if we can’t use the suggested image due to copyright .

https://riversong.wordpress.com/1493-the-reknitting-of-pangaea/

 

Reflect on what source of energy could have  enabled these continents to move apart. The artwork below shows the layers of Earth, including its very hot inner core and its outer core. Do you think other celestial bodies in our solar system might have the same arrangement of hot and cold layers?

Artwork briefing template

Filename (this field will be filled by the Project Manager at a later stage)

ngss.phy.4.2.aw.04

Type of artwork (e.g. photo, illustration, interactive applet, video)

illustration

Brief description of what the artwork should represent/show

Image of a cut-out picture of the layers of Earth.

 

This is a Shutterstock image. If you need to change it for copyright, please adjust colors and font and keep the same information and format.

 

Caption: The layers of Earth.

Description of what the artwork should include: Please share as many details as possible.

 

 

Reference images: Please add source links/drawing/examples here to help us with the artwork creation.

 

It is preferable to avoid suggesting images and to let our media team do a selection of images. However, if you would like to suggest a specific image, please add the source link to this box, and write alternative instructions if we can’t use the suggested image due to copyright .

https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/section-earths-crust-structure-earth-vector-726083263

 

As you understand the tremendous heat at Earth’s core, can you see a relationship between this heat and plate tectonics?

 

4.2.3.3 What are the relationships among radioactive decay, heat, and plate tectonics?

 

You have now learned about plate tectonics and radioactive decay. You know that the phenomenon of plate tectonics requires heat, and you know that radioactive decay creates heat. Consider these questions:

• If there were no radioactive decay taking place in Earth’s inner core, would the core eventually cool down? 

• If the core cooled down so much that Earth’s tectonic plates stopped moving, what effect would that have on Earth’s surface and activity?

 

You know what plate tectonics is, but who came up with the theory? The video below gives you answers.

Video/audio brief

ngss.phy.4.2.video.04

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tL-phSc_8cs

 

Caption: Alfred Wegener and Pangea

 

 

Activity box

Watch the video and take notes individually.

 

Video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tL-phSc_8cs

 

This video explains the theory held by a scientist, Alfred Wegener, about continental drift. Wegener’s theory included the idea that the seven continents that exist on Earth today were originally one gigantic supercontinent called Pangea.

 

As you watch this video, answer the following questions:

• What was Pangea?

• What are the five pieces of evidence that support the theory of continental drift? 

 

Write your answers to these questions and share with the rest of the class.

 

 

In the activity below, you will see that Wegener’s observations were correct, but he could not explain the cause of what he observed.

Activity box

Break into groups of 2 or 3.

Use the website:

https://publish.illinois.edu/alfredwegener/the-missing-mechanism-seafloor-spreading/

 

This website explains that Alfred Wegener was unsure what phenomenon caused continental drift.

 

Answer these questions using the website:

• What was the mechanism accounting for continental drift?

• Explain what thermal convection is.

• Explain what happens at mid-ocean ridges.

 

Share your answers with the other groups.

 

 

Vocabulary

Words we need

 

Pangea

supercontinent

thermal convection

 

1.  A combination of continents that then broke apart was called **Pangea.** 

2.  Pangea was considered a **supercontinent**.

3. The transfer of heat by the mass movement of a fluid is called **thermal convection.**

 

 

Your context

If you look at a map of the current locations of the boundaries of Earth’s tectonic plates, can you identify if you live near one of the boundaries?

 

Fill in the blanks question

Question and answer(s) enclosed in [square] brackets

Complete the following sentence.

 

Wegener did not know that [convection currents] drive the movement of the continents.

Gap 1 answer variations (optional)

N/A 

Gap 2 answer variations (optional)

N/A

Answer explanation

Heat in the form of convection currents is required to make the continents move. 

Gap 1 explanation (optional)

N/A

Gap 2 explanation (optional)

N/A

Relevant section on Kognity

The Kognity topic_subtopic_section to which your question aligns: 

 

4.2.3 

Marking type (strict or non-exact)

Strict

NGSS alignment

HS-ESS1-5, PS1.C, ESS1.C, ESS2.B, PAT-H5, ARG-H2

Difficulty level (easy, medium or hard)

Easy

 

Crosscutting Concept

Patterns 

Empirical evidence is needed to identify patterns

In the video you watched above about Alfred Wegener and the continental drift theory, the narrator presented evidence that identified patterns in the formation of the 7 continents we have today. Can you think of evidence in your experience that helps you identify patterns? Do you have experience of weather patterns that repeat themselves?

 

Science and Engineering Practice

 

Engaging in argument from evidence 

Evaluate evidence behind currently accepted explanations or solutions to determine the merits of arguments.

As you watched the video about Alfred Wegener and the continental drift theory, what is your evaluation of the evidence presented for the theory of continental drift? Is it thorough? Is it based on data? Can you give an example of an accepted explanation for a phenomenon with which you disagree? And why?

 

Question and answer(s) enclosed in [square] brackets

Complete the following sentence.

 

The age of the highest center section of the mid-ocean ridge is [younger] than the outer edges of the mid-ocean ridge.

Gap 1 answer variations (optional)

N/A 

Gap 2 answer variations (optional)

N/A

Answer explanation

As the mid-ocean ridge spreads out, the oldest part of it is at the outer edges to the left and right of the center. 

Gap 1 explanation (optional)

N/A

Gap 2 explanation (optional)

N/A

Relevant section on Kognity

The Kognity topic_subtopic_section to which your question aligns: 

 

4.2.3

Marking type (strict or non-exact)

Strict

NGSS alignment

HS-ESS1-5, PS1.C, ESS1.C, ESS2.B, PAT-H5, ARG-H2

Difficulty level (easy, medium or hard)

Easy

 

What is the driving force behind plate tectonics? 

<<Show/hide button>>

<<convection currents>>

 

Activity box

In groups of 2 or 3, use the websites below and any others you can find to help answer this question: How are nuclear processes related to plate tectonics?

 

• http://www.geo.mtu.edu/KeweenawGeoheritage/MiTEP_ESI-1/Radioactive.html
  (In the website above, on the first page, notice all the underlined topics you can click on for more information.)

• https://www.livescience.com/15084-radioactive-decay-increases-earths-heat.html

 

Share your findings with the rest of the class.

 

4.2.3.4 Reflection and Summary

 

In this section, you learned about the relationships among radioactive decay, heat, and plate tectonics and how these phenomena affected and continue to affect the surface of Earth.

Reflect on the following questions:

• Do you see a relationship among nuclear processes, heat, and plate tectonics?

• Is there enough evidence to support the past and current movements of continental and oceanic crust?

• Reflect on our driving question: Do Earth's moon and other planets in our solar system show evidence of tectonics? 

 

4.2.4 Plate tectonics and the ages of crustal rock

 

Standard(s) covered (PEs):

HS-ESS1-5  

DCI(s) covered:

PS1.C

ESS1.C

ESS2.B

CCC(s) covered:

Patterns

SEP(s) covered:

Engaging in argument from evidence 

5E covered:

Elaborate

 

4.2.4.1 The importance of the scientific model

 

In 4.2.1, you reviewed and expanded your knowledge of the cyclic patterns on Earth, the nuclear processes of atoms, and the theory of plate tectonics. As you synthesize this information, can you make connections about how the theory of plate tectonics explains the ages of crustal rocks on Earth and on the ocean floor?

 

Video/audio brief

ngss.phy.4.2.video.05

http://thebritishgeographer.weebly.com/plate-tectonic-theory.html

Scroll quite far down until you reach the video “A Massive Model of the Earth’s Core.”

 

Activity box

Return to this website: http://thebritishgeographer.weebly.com/plate-tectonic-theory.html

and scroll down to the video: “A Massive Model of the Earth’s Core.”

 

As you watch this video, be aware:

• Scientists often develop models to help them study phenomena that are difficult or impossible to research in reality.

• How has the model of Earth’s core informed scientists?

  • What is this model made of?

  • Is it an accurate model of the phenomena that occur in Earth’s core?

  • What are the advantages of using the model to understand the phenomena in Earth’s core?

• What conclusions do the scientists make about the fluctuating magnetic field on Earth?

  • Recall how the shifting of the magnetic field throughout time is a way of determining the age of crustal rocks. 

• What conclusions do the scientists make about the nature of the activity in Earth’s core?

 

Answer these questions in groups of 2 or 3, and share your answers with the rest of the class.

 

It is interesting to note from watching this video the importance of the model these scientists created. By simulating conditions inside Earth’s core, they hope to better understand the processes that result from these conditions and how to predict what changes might occur on Earth as a result of the activity of the inner core.

 

Fill in the blanks question

Question and answer(s) enclosed in [square] brackets

Complete the following sentence.

 

Molten magma is located [outside] the solid inner core of Earth.

Gap 1 answer variations (optional)

N/A 

Gap 2 answer variations (optional)

N/A

Answer explanation

Earth is composed of five layers: solid inner core, liquid outer core, mantle, upper mantle, and crust.

Gap 1 explanation (optional)

N/A

Gap 2 explanation (optional)

N/A

Relevant section on Kognity

The Kognity topic_subtopic_section to which your question aligns: 

 

4.2.3 

Marking type (strict or non-exact)

Strict

NGSS alignment

HS-ESS1-5, PS1.C, ESS1.C, ESS2.B, PAT-H5, ARG-H2 

Difficulty level (easy, medium or hard)

Easy

 

4.2.4.2 Connections between plate tectonics and the ages of crustal rock

 

As you get closer to making connections between plate tectonics and the ages of crustal rock, use the website below, and any others you might find, to identify various methods scientists use to determine the ages of crustal rock. 

Activity box

Use this website to discover ways that scientists are able to identify the ages of different rocks on Earth.

https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/dating-rocks-and-fossils-using-geologic-methods-107924044/

 

Individually, take notes on how the methods listed below help scientists determine the age of crustal rock on Earth:

• geomagnetic polarity time scale

• half-life

• index fossil

• principle of superposition

• thermoluminescence

 

Share your explanations with the rest of the class.

 

Your context

Are there any of the methods used above that you could use as you examine a landscape? You might be able to find a fossil whose age you could identify. At least, you could use the principle of superposition as you observe your landscape. 

 

Vocabulary

Words we need

 

geomagnetic polarity time scale

index fossil

principle of superposition

thermoluminescence

 

1. A record of the many reversals of Earth's magnetic polarity used to help determine the age of rocks is called **geomagnetic polarity time scale.*

2.   An **index fossil** is used to determine the age of the rock in which it is found.

3. The **principle of superposition** generally maintains that the oldest rocks are at the bottom of a formation and the youngest rocks are at the top.

4.  A dating method using  heat to measure the amount of radioactivity accumulated by a rock since it was last heated is called **thermoluminescence.**

 

4.2.4.3 Where are the oldest rocks found?

 

We are gaining more information and knowledge that allow us to address one of our main questions: How does the evidence of past and current movements of continental and oceanic crust and the theory of plate tectonics explain the ages of crustal rocks.

 

Activity box

Use this website and any others you might find to discover ways that scientists are able to identify the ages of different rocks on Earth.

https://earthobservatory.sg/faq-on-earth-sciences/where-do-we-find-oldest-continental-rocks-and-oldest-seafloor

 

In groups of 2 or 3,  answer these questions:

• How do we know the age of the seafloor?

• Why is the seafloor so recent and the continental crust so old?

• Where are the oldest continental rocks and the oldest seafloor rocks?

 

Share your answers with the rest of the class.

 

The answers that you find to the questions above will begin to answer the overarching question about how the theory of plate tectonics explains the ages of crustal rocks. You learned that the oldest continental rocks are in the center of large continents where they could survive the effects of continental drift. The oldest seafloor is located as far as possible from the mid-ocean ridge where the magma first erupted and formed new rocks on the ocean floor.

 

Crosscutting Concept

 

Patterns 

Even though Alfred Wegener theorized the supercontinent of Pangea, he looked for evidence beyond the shapes of the continents to confirm his theory. He researched flora and fauna on the different continents to substantiate his claim. Can you make a claim about a phenomenon you observe in the natural world and back it up with evidence?

 

Science and Engineering Practice

 

Engaging in argument from evidence 

Evaluate evidence behind currently accepted explanations or solutions to determine the merits of arguments.

You are now learning enough about plate tectonics and the ages of Earth’s crustal rock to evaluate how plate tectonics plays a part in the ages of the rock. Do you agree with the evidence presented so that you can accept the causal relationship between the two? Can you cite other examples of evidence for accepted explanations? For example, do you accept evidence explaining gravity, chemical reactions, and nuclear reactions?

 

4.2.4.4 Reflection and summary

In this subsection, you have learned the connection between plate tectonics and the ages of crustal rock. You understand where the oldest continental rocks are located and where the oldest seafloor rocks are located. You can make a connection between the eruptions caused by plate tectonics and the ages of these crustal rocks.

• Are Earth’s plates still moving?

• Do you see a causal relationship between heat, convection, and plate tectonics?

• Why is the seafloor so recent and the continental crust so old?

 

In the next section, we can address our driving question: Do Earth's moon and other planets in our solar system show evidence of tectonics? You will need to use the skills you have been developing about how to evaluate evidence. 

 

4.2.5 Plate tectonics, a universal phenomenon?

 

Standard(s) covered (PEs):

HS-ESS1-5  

DCI(s) covered:

PS1.C

ESS1.C

ESS2.B

CCC(s) covered:

Patterns

SEP(s) covered:

Engaging in argument from evidence 

5E covered:

Evaluate

 

 

4.2.5.1 Evidence of plate tectonics elsewhere?

 

By now, you have learned a great deal about the past and current movements of continental and oceanic crust and the theory of plate tectonics. You are able to explain the ages of Earth’s crustal rock based on that knowledge. 

 

Now it is time for you to be an inquisitive scientist and ask: 

• Do Earth's moon and other planets in our solar system show evidence of tectonics?

• If so, can you evaluate any conclusions based on evidence?

 

In this section, you will do your own research and provide your own evidence as to whether you believe that Earth's moon and other planets in our solar system show evidence of tectonics. 

 

Activity box

Read this helpful website for information:

https://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/explore/shaping_the_planets/tectonism/

 

Break into groups of 2 or 3 and choose from among the moon and other planets. Choose one to research.

• Connect what you are learning to the driving question for the planet you chose to research: Do Earth's moon and other planets in our solar system show evidence of tectonics? 

• Can you find evidence of tectonic activity on Mars, Venus, Mercury, or Earth's moon?

• Can you find pictures as evidence of tectonic activity?

• Is deformation on the surface of a planet conclusive proof of current tectonic activity? Why or why not?

• What is an important characteristic of tectonic activity on a planet?

 

Share your research with the whole class.

 

4.2.5.1 Evaluation of research

It is important to use your critical thinking skills to determine the quality of the research done on Mars, Venus, Mercury, and Earth's moon. In the rubric you devise to evaluate the research, you might judge the quality of the content, the credibility of the sources, the language and presentation, and whether the research answers the questions.

 

 

 

 

 

Activity box

After each group has presented their research to the whole class, break up into groups of 2 or 3 again.

• Develop a rubric that can be used to evaluate the research you did on your planet. 

• Evaluate the research of each team according to the rubric.

• Evaluate how each team followed the rubric and answered the questions they posed for themselves.

 

Below is a website containing 3 entertaining and informative interactives about plate movement, plate boundaries, and the breakup of Pangea. 

Artwork briefing template

Filename (this field will be filled by the Project Manager at a later stage)

ngss.phy.4.2.in.02

Type of artwork (e.g. photo, illustration, interactive applet, video)

interactive

Brief description of what the artwork should represent/show

 

Description of what the artwork should include: Please share as many details as possible.

 

Please include the image or interactive caption too (all images need a caption).

Caption for Interactive:

Movements of plates, plate boundaries, and the breakup of Pangea.

Reference images: Please add source links/drawing/examples here to help us with the artwork creation.

 

It is preferable to avoid suggesting images and to let our media team do a selection of images. However, if you would like to suggest a specific image, please add the source link to this box, and write alternative instructions if we can’t use the suggested image due to copyright .

https://divediscover.whoi.edu/plate-tectonics/plate-movements/

Interactive content only: Please share details to explain how the interactive content should work, what should move, what happens when we click a button, and any other detail to help us create it accurately.

This is not much of an interactive. Can you show the same information as the website here with drawings of:

Plates separate

Plates collide

Plates subduct

Plates slide

 

If you make these move as described that would be fantastic!

 

Multiple choice question

Question

Which of the planets in our solar system still have molten interiors?

Answer 1 (correct)

Venus and Mars

Answer 2 (incorrect)

Mercury and Mars

Answer 3 (incorrect)

Mercury and Venus

Answer 4 (incorrect)

The moon and Mars

Explanation

Only Venus and Mars are believed to still have hot interiors.

Relevant section on Kognity

The Kognity topic_subtopic_section to which your question aligns: 

 

4.2.5

NGSS alignment

HS-ESS1-5, PS1.C, ESS1.C, ESS2.B, PAT-H5, ARG-H2 

Difficulty level (easy, medium or hard)

Easy

 

Science and Engineering Practice

 

Engaging in argument from evidence 

Evaluate evidence behind currently accepted explanations or solutions to determine the merits of arguments.

What kind of evidence can you present to support your argument of whether plate tectonics is occurring elsewhere in our solar system? Can you cite photographs as evidence for your argument? Do you believe photographs are enough to support your argument?

 

It is important when doing online research to find reliable and credible sources. Look for sites listed as “.edu,” “.org,” or  “.gov.”

 

Your context

Do you believe you might travel into outer space sometime during your lifetime?

 

Activity box

Refer to this website which presents a link between plate tectonics and the development of life on Earth.

https://earthsky.org/space/plate-tectonics-not-needed-for-alien-life/

 

Answer the following questions individually:

• How do scientists link the formation of life with plate tectonics on Earth?

• How is the carbon cycle affected by plate tectonics?

• What is another planet that scientists believe might have an outer crust divided into plates?

• Why do scientists conclude that life could evolve on other planets that do not undergo the phenomenon of plate tectonics? 

Divide into two debate teams to present two different opinions about tectonic activity on other planets.

 

4.2.5.3 What about Europa?

 

Scientists are interested in Jupiter’s icy moon Europa for two reasons. They believe that they have found evidence of active plate tectonics within the ice shell of Europa. Because of this, scientists believe there could  be life in the ocean underneath the icy crust of Europa.

 

Do your own research on this planet to form your opinions on whether there could be life on Europa. Figure 1 shows the icy surface of Europa.

Artwork briefing template

Filename (this field will be filled by the Project Manager at a later stage)

ngss.phy.4.2.ph.01

Type of artwork (e.g. photo, illustration, interactive applet, video)

Photo

Brief description of what the artwork should represent/show

This image might be subject to copyright. 

Caption:  Europa, an icy moon of Jupiter. 

Description of what the artwork should include: Please share as many details as possible.

 

Caption: Europa, a moon of Jupiter

 

Reference images: Please add source links/drawing/examples here to help us with the artwork creation.

 

It is preferable to avoid suggesting images and to let our media team do a selection of images. However, if you would like to suggest a specific image, please add the source link to this box, and write alternative instructions if we can’t use the suggested image due to copyright .

https://www.space.com/13624-photos-europa-mysterious-moon-jupiter.html

 

Activity box

You can use these websites and any others you can find to answer questions:

https://www.space.com/13624-photos-europa-mysterious-moon-jupiter.html

https://www.space.com/28648-living-on-europa-jupiter-explained-infographic.html

https://www.space.com/28705-how-to-live-on-europa.html

 

Answer the following questions individually:

• What three things do Jupiter's moons have that could make them plausible locations for permanent bases?

• Why is Europa’s surface relatively smooth with no large craters or mountains?

• What is the average temperature on Europa?

• Scientists can see cracks in the icy surface of Europa, but is that evidence of plate tectonics or some other force acting on Europa?

Share your answers with the rest of the class.

 

Vocabulary

Words we need

 

solar system

rubric

crater

Europa

 

1. The **solar system** consists of eight planets, the Sun,  and other celestial bodies. 

2. A **rubic** helps students respond correctly to an assignment.

3. A **crater**is often thought to be caused by the impact of a meteorite.

4. An icy moon of Jupiter is **Europa.**

 

Below is a photo of the surface of Europa. This photo does show the icy surface of Europa but it shows how close Europa is to Jupiter.

Artwork briefing template

Filename (this field will be filled by the Project Manager at a later stage)

ngss.phy.4.2.ph.02

Type of artwork (e.g. photo, illustration, interactive applet, video)

image

Brief description of what the artwork should represent/show

This image might be subject to copyright. 

 

Caption:  Europa’s surface with Jupiter in the background.

Description of what the artwork should include: Please share as many details as possible.

 

 

Reference images: Please add source links/drawing/examples here to help us with the artwork creation.

 

It is preferable to avoid suggesting images and to let our media team do a selection of images. However, if you would like to suggest a specific image, please add the source link to this box, and write alternative instructions if we can’t use the suggested image due to copyright.

https://www.space.com/13624-photos-europa-mysterious-moon-jupiter/2.html 

 

Activity box

Read about satellites at the very end of this website:

https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/understanding.html

 

At the end of the website above, you will find information about the use of satellites to measure distances repeatedly between specific points on Earth to determine if there is movement along faults or between plates. We know that this type of measurement benefits scientists in predicting earthquakes and volcanoes.

 

Do you think it is possible to use satellites elsewhere in our solar system to detect plate tectonics on any other planets? Could that be an indication of life on other planets?

 

Offer your opinions to the rest of the class.

 

 

4.2.5.4 Reflection and summary

Now that you have reached the end of this subtopic, you understand the relationship between plate tectonics and the ages of crustal rocks. You have researched other planets in our solar system. You can reflect on the driving question once again: 

• Do Earth's moon and other planets in our solar system show evidence of tectonics? 

• Has your research given you enough information to determine whether other celestial bodies in our solar system show evidence of plate tectonics? If so, does that mean there might also be some form of life on these planets?

 

Glossary

 

Word

Definition

alpha particle

An alpha particle is a type of particle emitted during radioactive decay that has a positive charge.

asthenosphere

The layer of Earth’s mantle lying just below the lithosphere.

beta particle

A beta particle can be an electron (unit negative charge) or a positron (unit positive charge)

carbon-14

Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon whose nucleus contains 6 protons and 8 neutrons.

carbon cycle

The carbon cycle traces the exchange of carbon among the biosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of Earth.

causal relationship

A causal relation is when the occurrence of one thing causes the occurrence of another.

corollary

An idea that follows from one that has already been proved.

convergent plate boundary

Where two tectonic plates come together and can form a mountain range. 

crater

A large, bowl-shaped hole on the surface of a planet.

craton

A stable part of a continent that has not undergone the process of plate tectonics.

crust

The outer shell of a terrestrial planet.

divergent plate boundary

When two tectonic plates move away from each other.

Earth’s magnetic field

Earth has a magnetic field that is generated by the movement of molten iron in Earth’s core.

eclipse

When one celestial body is in the shadow of another celestial body.

empirical evidence

Information gained either through observation or experimentation.

Europa

An icy moon of Jupiter.

fission

The process of dividing something into two or more parts.

fusion

The process of two atoms bonding together to make a heavier atom.

gamma particle

A particle that is emitted during radioactive decay and has no charge.

geomagnetic polarity 

A planet's magnetic field in which magnetic north and magnetic south can reverse themselves.

geomagnetic polarity time scale

Arecord of the reversals of Earth's magnetic polarity.

gravity

The force of attraction between any physical bodies having mass.

half-life

The time needed for a quantity to reduce to half of its initial quantity.

index fossil

A fossil that is used for dating and correlating the strata in which it is found.

isotope

The same element with a different number of neutrons.

law of the conservation of energy

A law that tates that energy is neither created nor destroyed.

macroscopic

Something large enough to be seen with the naked eye.

magma

The extremely hot liquid located just outside the solid inner core of Earth.

magnetic field

The magnetic force on moving electric charges and magnetic materials.

microscopic

Something so small it can only be seen with a microscope.

mid-ocean ridge

A seafloor mountain system formed by the convergence of two tectonic plates.

nitrogen cycle

Cycle that traces the circulation of nitrogen through the atmosphere, land, and water systems.

nucleus

The center of the atom, which contains the protons and neutrons. 

oxygen cycle 

Cycle that traces the movement of oxygen through the air, through plants and animals, and through the lithosphere.

photosynthesis

The chemical process whereby plants produce glucose using the energy of the sun, water, and carbon dioxide.

plate tectonics

The theory that major landforms are the result of Earth's subterranean movements.

principle of superposition

A principle in geology that means that in layers of rock, the oldest rock is at the bottom. 

radioactive 

The emission of ionizing radiation or particles.

radioactive decay

The process whereby an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation.

rock cycle

Cycle that traces the transitions through time of the three types of rock: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

rubric

A scoring tool that describes in detail the expectations and requirements for a specific assignment or piece of work. 

stagnant lid planet

A planet that has a solid crust with no cracks.

strata

A layer or series of layers of rock.

subduction

When two plates come together and one rides over the other.

supercontinent

The massing together of many landmasses into one large landmass.

thermoluminescence

The emission of light from minerals or other materials.

time scale

A system of dating that classifies geological strata.

solar system

Consists of eight planets, their moons in orbit around the sun, in addition to other smaller celestial bodies.

supercontinent

The assembly of Earth’s continents into one landmass.

volcanism

The phenomenon of the eruption of magma, water, or steam from inside a planet.

water cycle

The process by which water circulates among Earth’s bodies of water, atmosphere, and land.

Stenerson Ecosystem Interactions.pdf

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Powering a predator.pdf

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The science of going to space.pdf

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Creation of landforms.pdf

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Forces at a distance- Celestial motion.pdf

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